Visitor profiling is foundational in tourism research. It offers vital insights into socio-demographic, psychographic and behavioural characteristics of individuals engaging with destinations. Initially rooted in basic demographic segmentation for marketing purposes during the post-industrial era (Kotler et al. 2017), profiling has since advanced into sophisticated data-driven approaches that integrate behavioural patterns and sustainability concerns (Weaver 2006). In the context of cave tourism, for instance, Chiarini, Duckeck and De Waele (2022) emphasise that effective visitor profiling is crucial for balancing economic benefits with the preservation of delicate cave ecosystems. Nevertheless, this area of study also reveals notable gaps and challenges in capturing the complexities of cave tourism audiences, particularly in emerging markets (e.g. Chiarini et al. 2022).

Demographic profiling in tourism research has traditionally focused on variables such as age, gender, level of education and income (Kotler et al. 2017). While research performed by Allan, Dowling and Sanders (2015) highlights that cave tourism predominantly attracts younger demographics because of its adventurous and physically demanding nature, this perspective risks oversimplifying the diversity of cave tourists. In particular, niche segments such as older adventure-seekers, families and individuals with disabilities are often overlooked despite their potential as viable markets. As such, expanding the scope of cave visitor profiling to include these marginalised segments could reveal untapped markets and opportunities for sustainable growth, particularly as inclusive and accessible tourism have been gaining global prominence.

When demographic analysis moves beyond age, gender disparities emerge as a crucial layer that offers additional insight into the complexities of demographic profiling. Studies have indicated broader trends in which male visitors dominate adventure and nature-based tourism (Pomfret 2006). Cultural norms, safety concerns and the perception of caving as a male-oriented activity may often deter female participation. However, gender-sensitive policies and inclusive marketing campaigns have proven effective in challenging traditional gender norms in tourism. In that sense, Pritchard and Morgan (2000) argue that tourism marketing has the potential to redefine traditional gender roles and foster narratives that empower women to engage in adventure tourism. This perspective is supported by several studies that highlight the evolving role of women in adventure travel. Scandinavia provides compelling examples of successful initiatives aimed at rebranding adventure activities to appeal to female audiences. Similarly, in Switzerland, the Adventure Travel Trade Association (ATTA) reported in 2022 that women account for 57% of its adventure travellers, reflecting a growing shift towards female participation in the sector (ATTA 2022). In New Zealand, initiatives such as Women’s Adventures NZ (05 March 2022) have been instrumental in empowering women by offering regular, fun and affordable activities designed to encourage them to try new things and embrace adventure in their lives.

Education levels are widely recognised as a crucial determinant in shaping tourist behaviour, particularly in relation to engagement with interpretive and conservation-oriented tourism. Moscardo (1996) emphasises a robust positive correlation between higher education and interest in cultural and environmental narratives. This suggests that more educated tourists are better equipped to critically engage with destination stories and conservation initiatives. This finding is equally extendable to the context of cave tourism, given that it aligns with broader discussions in the field. In particular, those highlighting that education fosters a greater appreciation for complex cultural and ecological systems, often translating into increased willingness to support conservation efforts and participate in guided interpretive experiences (Powell & Ham 2008). Grobbelaar, Saayman and Slabbert (2019) further substantiate this view in the context of geotrails in South Africa. They observe that individuals with higher educational attainment are more likely to engage in conservation-related activities, thus reflecting a heightened sense of responsibility and intellectual curiosity.

From a critical standpoint, however, emphasis on the educated tourist also raises questions about inclusiveness in cave tourism. Literature frequently overlooks the needs and preferences of less educated audiences, especially those who may approach recreational or cultural experiences from different, yet equally valid, perspectives. For example, Ardoin et al. (2015) argue that while interpretive programmes often prioritise factual and analytical engagement, they risk alienating individuals who prefer experiential or emotive connections with destinations. Accordingly, scholars have cautioned that a narrow focus on education can reinforce elitist narratives that prioritise the preferences of more privileged demographics. To counter this, they stress the need for more interpretive programmes that reflect the diversity of visitor demographics (Falk & Dierking 2013).

Behavioural profiling in tourism research examines visitor patterns such as length of stay, trip frequency, expenditure habits and activity preferences. As such, it provides a foundation for informed tourism strategies. In the context of niche tourism markets such as cave tourism, behavioural profiling has become even more pertinent. It allows researchers and practitioners to identify unique challenges and opportunities associated with visitor engagement. In cases such as Meghalaya, India, Kumar (2014) identified a predominance of short-day trips in the region’s renowned caves (e.g. Mawsami caves and the Krem Liat Prah caves). This trend is particularly shaped by infrastructural challenges, including road connectivity, inadequate signage and insufficient accommodation options for extended stays. This pattern reflects broader dynamics in developing markets, where infrastructural limitations constrain opportunities for prolonged, immersive visitor experiences (Scheyvens 2007).

Behavioural profiling also highlights how the duration of stays directly influences expenditure habits. Research consistently demonstrates that longer stays correlate with higher per-trip expenditures. This is because of tourists’ greater likelihood of participating in additional experiences, supporting local commerce and accessing various services (Kotler et al. 2017; Rogerson 2015). In contrast, short trips typically result in lower spending, restricted to necessities such as transportation and entrance fees, thereby limiting the potential for local economic benefits. Consequently, the dominance of short visits in cases such as Meghalaya can be viewed as missed opportunities to fully harness the potential of cave tourism as a driver of regional development.

Scholars have explored various strategies to address behavioural patterns limiting extended stays through theoretical and empirical perspectives. For instance, Dolnicar, Yanamandram and Cliff (2012) argue that multi-day adventure packages, which combine activities such as cave exploration, trekking and cultural immersion, can incentivise tourists to extend their stays. Others emphasise that well-structured packages align with the principles of experiential tourism, where the value of a visit is enhanced by meaningful and engaging activities. However, implementing such packages often requires significant infrastructure and logistical investment, which may be challenging in developing contexts (Scheyvens 2007) such as Anambra State, where infrastructural barriers persist.

The role of accommodation in shaping tourist behaviour is another area of focus within behavioural profiling. Eco-friendly lodges near cave sites, as proposed by sustainable tourism advocates, could simultaneously offer comfort and promote environmental stewardship (Dolnicar et al. 2012). Behavioural studies such as Kim et al. (2019) support this stance by suggesting that proximity to attractions and sustainable practices are critical determinants of tourist satisfaction and longer stays. However, others caution that over-reliance on high-investment infrastructure projects can inadvertently displace local communities or lead to environmental degradation if poorly managed (Hall 2011).

Seasonality and socio-cultural factors further shape tourism behaviours because of their emphasis on temporal and contextual dimensions of travel. In regions with distinct climatic patterns, visitor numbers often peak during favourable seasons, thereby underscoring the importance of adaptive marketing strategies (Butler 1998). Butler’s Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) framework highlights how seasonality impacts the development and sustainability of destinations. Festivals and cultural events also act as significant drivers, transforming occasional visitors into repeat tourists by offering unique, time-bound experiences (Gibson & Connell 2012). For instance, the annual Ofala Festival in Anambra State attracts both domestic and diaspora tourists. This influx presents a valuable opportunity to align cultural programming with wider tourism planning efforts. Also, caves with stable microclimates can effectively be promoted as year-round destinations, particularly during off-peak seasons. Research on Kartchner Caverns in Arizona highlights how consistent internal conditions enhance their appeal regardless of external weather variations (Buecher 1999). Similarly, a study on Gelatik Cave in Indonesia underscores the role of microclimates in supporting year-round tourism, while emphasising the necessity of careful monitoring and visitor management to ensure environmental preservation (Danardono et al. 2018).

Nevertheless, critical perspectives caution against an over-reliance on behavioural metrics, which may oversimplify the complexities of tourist motivations. Static indicators, such as visit duration or spending patterns, often fail to account for the dynamic and context-dependent nature of tourist decision-making (Smallman & Moore 2010). Integrating psychographic and behavioural insights, supported by validated psychometric instruments, provides a more holistic understanding of tourists’ values, emotional drivers and aspirations, and therefore offers a more comprehensive view of visitor behaviour (Pearce 2005).

Psychographic profiling examines the values, motivations and lifestyles that shape tourist behaviour. Unlike demographic or behavioural profiling, this approach uncovers the psychological factors that influence travel choices and preferences. Scholars have long sought to categorise tourists based on their motivations and preferences. Pomfret (2006) identifies adventure enthusiasts as individuals who prioritise physical challenges and novel experiences, and tend to gravitate towards activities such as spelunking, rock climbing and trekking. Eco-conscious travellers, as noted by Becken (2014), place a strong emphasis on sustainability. They often participate in conservation efforts and choose destinations that prioritise environmental stewardship. However, Dolnicar (2004) observes these categorisations as overly simplistic, arguing that tourist motivations are fluid and often intersect. For example, an adventure enthusiast may simultaneously value cultural enrichment, while a cultural explorer may be drawn to eco-tourism initiatives. Pearce and Lee (2005) expand on this notion by highlighting how factors such as life stages, prior experiences and societal influences shape tourist motivations over time. This underscores the need for adaptive psychographic models that account for the dynamic interplay of motivations.

Psychographic profiling also reveals critical barriers that influence tourist behaviour. Gender dynamics, for instance, as discussed earlier, intersect with motivational factors, as cultural norms and safety concerns often deter female participation in adventure tourism (Pritchard & Morgan 2000). Socio-economic constraints further highlight the importance of affordability and inclusivity in tourism offerings (Cohen, Prayag & Moital 2014). These barriers emphasise the need for tailored tourism products that resonate with diverse value systems. For instance, spiritual tourists are typically drawn to peaceful and introspective environments. In response, many destinations have introduced wellness-focused offerings such as meditation retreats and spiritual workshops (Norman 2011). In addition, eco-conscious travellers, as Wearing (2001) notes, frequently seek accommodation and activities aligned with their sustainability ethos, such as eco-certified lodges or voluntourism opportunities. Such insights reinforce the importance of psychographic profiling in designing tourism products that address both motivations and barriers.

Interdisciplinary approaches to profiling have enriched tourism studies by integrating insights from sociology, psychology and anthropology. Symbolic interactionism, as proposed by Blumer (1969), examines how tourists construct meaning through social interactions and personal narratives. In cave tourism, this perspective helps explain how visitors interpret cultural or spiritual elements, shaping their overall satisfaction and engagement (Moscardo 2010). Behavioural economics further contributes by examining how cognitive biases and heuristics influence decision-making (Thaler & Sunstein 2008). For instance, perceptions of risk in cave tourism, such as concerns about safety, are often exaggerated compared to the real level of danger. As Chylińska (2024) notes, this makes risk communication a vital part of visitor management. These interdisciplinary insights not only deepen the understanding of tourist behaviour but also provide actionable strategies for addressing barriers and enhancing experiences.

Despite its contributions, psychographic profiling is not without limitations. Its reliance on subjective constructs such as values and attitudes raises concerns about generalisability and cultural bias. Kim and Prideaux (2005) argue that traditional psychographic models often reflect Western-centric paradigms, potentially overlooking diverse worldviews and motivations in non-Western contexts. This critique is echoed by Asiedu (2005), who emphasises that communal values and collective identity significantly shape travel motivations in African contexts, contrasting with the individualistic focus of many Western models. Addressing these gaps requires culturally sensitive research methodologies that capture the unique psychographic dimensions of underrepresented populations. For instance, in African tourism, psychographic profiling could incorporate communal aspirations, spiritual connections and deep appreciation for natural and cultural heritage (Rogerson 2015). These culturally tailored approaches not only enhance the inclusivity of psychographic models but also provide a more accurate representation of global tourist behaviour.

Intrinsic motivation refers to behaviours driven by inherent enjoyment or satisfaction, such as exploration, personal growth and aesthetic appreciation (Deci & Ryan 2000). This form of motivation often transcends material or external rewards. It reflects deeply in personal desires for fulfilment and engagement. In the context of cave tourism, intrinsic motivations frequently emerge through transformative experiences, where visitors report profound senses of wonder and connection to nature (Grobbelaar et al. 2019). Such experiences align with Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs, where self-actualisation (i.e. the aspiration to achieve one’s full potential) represents the pinnacle of human fulfilment. Scholars have extensively explored the role of intrinsic motivation in shaping meaningful tourism experiences. For instance, Pearce and Lee (2005) again emphasise that personal growth, self-exploration and emotional resonance are core motivations for leisure travel, particularly in niche tourism segments. Visitors exploring cave systems, such as those in Meghalaya, India, often describe their journeys as opportunities for introspection and personal discovery, illustrating how intrinsic motivations are tied to deeply emotional and intellectual rewards. Moreover, studies carried out by Stebbins (1992) on serious leisure suggest that activities requiring effort and skill, such as spelunking, amplify intrinsic satisfaction, thereby linking the experience to a broader sense of accomplishment and fulfilment.

Guided cave tours further enhance intrinsic motivation by fostering an appreciation of ecological and geological formations in a way that creates long-lasting connections to nature. Falk and Dierking (2013) argue that immersive and interpretive experiences, such as those in caves, stimulate both cognitive and affective engagement while reinforcing intrinsic connections to the environment. Longitudinal studies reveal that intrinsic motivations often evolve over time, whereas initial motivations may centre on novelty, such as seeking adventure or escape. The latter frequently transitions into attachments based on familiarity and a more profound appreciation of the destination (Kim, Ritchie & McCormick 2012). For instance, a first-time visitor may be drawn to the mystery and allure of a cave, while subsequent visits could foster a bond rooted in ecological stewardship or a deeper historical interest. This underscores the dynamic and enduring nature of intrinsic motivations in tourism.

Extrinsic motivation refers to behaviours driven by external factors such as financial rewards, social recognition or institutional goals, where the desired outcomes are distinct from the activity itself (Deci & Ryan 2000). In the context of cave tourism, extrinsic motivations manifest in activities such as corporate retreats aimed at fostering team cohesion, educational programmes designed to achieve learning objectives or research expeditions with explicit scientific goals (Allan et al. 2015). Such activities often emphasise measurable outcomes, including employee performance improvement, academic knowledge dissemination or data collection. While extrinsic motivators can broaden the accessibility of cave tourism and incentivise participation, scholars such as Moscardo (2010) caution against an over-reliance on external rewards. Excessive structuring or prioritisation of outcomes can diminish participants’ subjective experience, erode authenticity and reduce their emotional engagement with the environment. Ryan and Deci (2000) further imply that environments overly focused on extrinsic rewards may undermine intrinsic motivation by reducing perceived autonomy and personal connection.

To address these challenges, academic discourse emphasises the importance of integrating extrinsic and intrinsic motivational elements in tourism programme design. Ballantyne and Packer (2011) advocate for incorporating self-directed activities within structured experiences, fostering a balance between organisational objectives and individual autonomy. For instance, a corporate retreat in a cave setting could include optional exploratory sessions, creative workshops or ecological awareness programmes that cater to individual preferences. Such hybrid approaches are supported by Falk and Dierking (2013), whose research underscores the importance of fostering emotionally resonant and intellectually stimulating experiences to maximise engagement and satisfaction. Furthermore, Moscardo and Murphy (2014) highlight the potential for interpretive and participatory elements to deepen participants’ understanding of the cave’s ecological and cultural significance. By designing programmes that appeal to both extrinsic and intrinsic motivations, tourism providers can enhance the overall quality of the experience while encouraging sustainable engagement with natural heritage sites.

Amotivation, characterised by a lack of intention or drive to participate, poses significant challenges in tourism, particularly in niche markets such as cave tourism. Visitors may face barriers such as perceived risks, accessibility limitations or a lack of awareness, which deter engagement (Cole et al. 2019). These obstacles often stem from structural inadequacies, insufficient information or misconceptions about destinations. Addressing these barriers requires a multifaceted approach, including infrastructure development, targeted marketing and effective risk communication. Technologies such as virtual tours and augmented reality have proven particularly effective in mitigating perceived risks and generating interest, as they provide immersive previews of destinations while reducing uncertainties (Tussyadiah, Wang & Jia 2018). Case in point, virtual experiences can make inaccessible or remote cave systems more appealing to hesitant visitors by showcasing their unique features and safety measures.

Cultural and contextual factors profoundly influence both the manifestation of amotivation and the strategies required to overcome it. In African contexts, caves are often imbued with spiritual, historical or communal significance, and motivational dynamics are deeply intertwined with cultural traditions and identities (Odum 2017). This contrasts with the more individualistic frameworks commonly applied in Western-centric motivational models such as SDT (Salazar 2011). Recognising and integrating these cultural dimensions into motivation frameworks enhances their relevance and effectiveness. For example, community-driven tourism initiatives that highlight local heritage and emphasise collective benefits can help overcome amotivation by fostering inclusivity and connection. In such contexts, addressing amotivation requires understanding and respecting the cultural narratives that shape visitor attitudes towards tourism activities. Integrating SDT with complementary theories enriches its explanatory power. Push-pull theory, proposed by Dann (1977), identifies internal drivers (push factors) and external attractions (pull factors) that shape tourist motivations. In cave tourism, push factors might include a desire for adventure, novelty or escapism, while pull factors encompass unique geological formations, historical narratives and spiritual significance (Kim et al. 2008). Similarly, Pearce’s (2005) Travel Career Ladder illustrates how motivations evolve with travel experience, offering insights into the progressive nature of tourist engagement.

In summary, given the limited or non-existent literature concerning cave visitors and their motivations in West African nations, this study seeks to fill the gap and enhance the knowledge base for academia, tourism planners, policymakers, tourism marketers and promoters, particularly in making plans for Tourism Product Development. This perspective aligns with the view of Jang and Wu (2006), who emphasised that understanding tourists and their motivations is essential for deciphering their attitudes, analysing trends, making future plans and maintaining credible marketing programmes to effectively appeal to both visitors and tourists. Furthermore, this study adopts the perspective that the individuals sampled are considered visitors rather than tourists, as the variable of an overnight stay (commonly used to define tourists) is absent. The motivations of these visitors were assessed using the three categories outlined in SDT, providing a comprehensive framework to analyse intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and amotivation. By adopting this approach, the study offers valuable insights into visitor behaviour and lays the groundwork for more effective tourism planning and marketing strategies in West Africa.

Anambra State is situated in southeastern Nigeria, within West Africa, and spans an area of approximately 4844 km² (1870 mi²). It lies between longitudes 6°35’E and 7°30’E and latitudes 5°40’N and 6°48’N. It consists of 21 local government areas whose tourism potential is managed by the Ministry of Culture, Entertainment and Tourism, located in the state capital, Awka (Anambra State Government n.d.). Despite continuous efforts over the years, tourism in Anambra State remains underdeveloped (see Odum 2020).

Studies using the TALC framework have identified the state as being in a transitional phase between exploration and development, a pattern observed in other southeastern Nigerian states (Odum 2020; Odum et al. 2018). Anambra State offers a diverse portfolio of attractions, including cultural events such as masquerade festivals, traditional dances, the Ofala Festival and the Iri-ji (New Yam) Festival. It also boasts historic and man-made sites, including Zik’s Mausoleum, the Igbo-Ukwu archaeological sites and the Biafra War Bunker, as well as natural attractions such as forest reserves, sacred lakes, streams and caves. A key component of Anambra’s natural attractions is its caves (locally referred to as Ogba), which vary in size, formation and features, and are distributed across communities such as Ogbunike (Ogbunike cave), Owerre-Ezukala (Ogba-Ukwu cave) and Ufuma (Ufuma cave) (see Figure 1). These caves hold socio-economic and socio-cultural importance, with their functions and values shaped by community-specific practices (Odum 2017). The Ogbunike cave is particularly notable as it is listed on UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List for its unique cultural and natural significance. Despite this recognition, none of the caves in Anambra State has been fully developed for tourism purposes. Currently, management and fee collection are handled by local communities with minimal involvement from the state government, although recent indications suggest an emerging interest in their development.

This emerging interest highlights the potential for the caves to play a transformative role in Anambra’s tourism landscape. However, for such potential to be realised, efforts must go beyond infrastructure development and include strategic planning grounded in sustainability principles. Effective geotourism planning for cave tourism, in particular, requires not only physical investments but also a collaborative approach involving comprehensive stakeholder engagement. A deeper understanding of visitor profiles and preferences is equally crucial, as these elements are vital for tailoring tourism experiences that balance economic benefits with cultural preservation and environmental protection. At present, critical data gaps in these areas present a formidable challenge to advancing sustainable tourism initiatives, underscoring the need for targeted research and policy interventions.

This study employed a quantitative survey design as the primary method of investigation. This design was selected because the central aim of the research was to statistically test hypotheses regarding the influence of demographic variables on cave-visiting motivations. A survey method allowed for the collection of a large sample (N = 577), which provided both descriptive insights into visitor characteristics and the statistical power necessary for robust inferential testing. The survey instrument was explicitly structured to operationalise SDT by classifying motivations into intrinsic, extrinsic and amotivation categories. This quantitative-led design ensured that findings could be generalised to a wider visitor population within the study area and compared against existing tourism segmentation research.

The research was conducted in Anambra State, southeastern Nigeria, where three focal sites (Ogbunike, Owerre-Ezukala and Ufuma caves) were selected purposively because of their significance in terms of tourism potential, ecological value and cultural meaning. The absence of a formal visitor registry or official numerical data for the selected caves made it necessary to employ a convenience sampling method. This approach enabled the inclusion of visitors who were available and willing to participate during the study period, aligning with similar methodologies in related research (Chingombe & Taru 2018). Accordingly, non-probability sampling (despite its limitations in terms of generalisability) was regarded as suitable for exploratory research in naturalistic tourism settings where visitors are transient and unregistered.

The fieldwork was conducted from April 2023 to December 2023 across the three caves. During this period, a total of 700 questionnaires were distributed, of which 577 were completed and returned (see Table 1). This high response rate (82.4%) strengthens the reliability of the findings and demonstrates the willingness of cave visitors to participate in research activities.

The principal instrument for data collection was a structured questionnaire designed to capture both demographic variables and motivational drivers. It was divided into two sections. The first section recorded demographic characteristics including origin, gender, age, level of education and religion, which were later used in hypothesis testing. The second section focused on motivations for cave visitation, operationalised within the framework of SDT. Respondents rated a series of motivational items corresponding to intrinsic, extrinsic and amotivation categories using a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ (1) to ‘strongly agree’ (5). The structured design facilitated standardisation across respondents, thereby ensuring comparability of results and the suitability of data for inferential statistical testing.

Data collected through questionnaires were coded and processed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software. Descriptive statistics, including frequencies and percentages, were computed to provide an overview of the demographic profile and motivational orientations of the respondents. Inferential statistical techniques were then applied to test the study’s hypotheses (H). Independent-samples t-tests were used to assess differences in motivations between male and female respondents (H1). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed to test for differences across age groups, levels of education and religious affiliations (H2–H4). A significance level of 0.05 was adopted throughout to ensure that the findings were interpreted within a widely accepted threshold of reliability and validity. In addition, effect sizes were calculated (Cohen’s d for t-tests and partial η² for ANOVAs) to provide a measure of the magnitude of differences. This ensured that findings could be interpreted not only in terms of statistical significance but also practical relevance (Pallant 2020).

To operationalise the analysis, the study tested the following hypotheses:

Ethical approval to conduct this study was obtained from the University of Nigeria, Faculty of Arts Research Ethics Committee (Ref: UN/FA/FAREC/02022025). All participants were fully informed about the purpose and scope of the study prior to their involvement. Given the informal setting and voluntary nature of the study context, verbal consent was obtained before the survey completion. To ensure confidentiality and anonymity, no personally identifiable or sensitive data were collected, aligning with American Psychological Association (APA) Ethical Guidelines.

Table 2 presents the occupational profile and numerical distribution of respondents engaged in geotourism in Anambra State. Students constitute the largest group (37%), followed by businesspeople (28%) and civil servants (19%). The least represented were academia and unemployed youth (8% each). These figures suggest that caves serve as leisure spaces for students, while also attracting business and government workers seeking relaxation or social gatherings.

The strong presence of businesspeople reflects Anambra State’s commercial orientation, supported by its three major cities, Awka, Nnewi and Onitsha, which function as hubs of economic activity (Odum 2017; Odum et al. 2018). Onitsha, in particular, is home to the Main Market, widely regarded as the largest market in West Africa and a key gateway to the southeastern and South-South regions of Nigeria (Odum 2011; Soludo 2006). This economic vitality likely attracts business-oriented visitors who may combine tourism with commercial activities.

Civil servants represent the third-largest group, accounting for 19% of cave visitors. This is significant, considering that civil servants comprise a substantial portion of the state’s workforce; Soludo (2006) estimates that 51% of Anambra’s workforce is employed in civil service. The participation of this demographic in geotourism highlights the recreational value of caves for individuals engaged in public sector employment.

The least represented groups, each constituting 8% of cave visitors, are academia and unemployed youth. The minimal presence of academia may be attributed to the nascent state of geotourism, specifically cave tourism, in Anambra State and Nigeria as a whole. As Odum (2020) notes, tourism in the southeastern region of Nigeria remains underdeveloped and is largely in the exploratory phase. Similarly, the limited participation of unemployed youth may reflect broader socio-economic constraints that inhibit access to recreational opportunities.

Table 3 summarises the demographic characteristics of the 577 surveyed respondents, including their origin, gender, age, level of education and religion. It reveals that most respondents resided within Anambra State (79%), while 21% came from outside the state. This indicates that cave tourism in Anambra is primarily driven by domestic visitors. The relatively low proportion of external visitors may be attributed to the undeveloped state of these caves, which lack facilities attractive to non-residents.

Gender distribution (Table 3) shows that males accounted for 78% (n = 450) of the sample and females 22% (n = 127). This substantial gender imbalance suggests that cave tourism in the state currently appeals more to men than women. Possible explanations for lower female participation (such as cultural norms, safety concerns, or accessibility constraints) are considered in the discussion section.

The age distribution was dominated by individuals aged 21–30 years (40%), followed by the 31–40 years group (28%), as shown in Table 3. Collectively, the 21–40 years bracket accounted for two-thirds of all visitors, suggesting that cave tourism appeals predominantly to younger adults.

Educational attainment (Table 3) indicated that 93% of respondents possessed some form of qualification, ranging from the First School Leaving Certificate (FSLC) to postgraduate degrees. First School Leaving Certificate holders represented the largest subgroup (31%), followed by Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (SSCE) holders (24%). Only 7% of respondents reported no formal qualification. This distribution suggests that cave tourism in Anambra State attracts a literate audience, therefore enabling conservation and interpretive messages to be communicated effectively.

The three predominant religions in Nigeria, namely Christianity, Islam and African traditional religion (ATR), are represented among cave visitors (Table 3). Christians form the majority at 64%, followed by adherents of ATR (18%) and Muslims (15%). A small number of respondents (3%) indicated ‘no religion’. This distribution reflects the religious plurality of Anambra State and its influence on cave visitation patterns.

As shown in Table 8, the primary reasons for visiting caves in Anambra State are fun (38%), religious or spiritual purposes (28%), relaxation and meditation (24%), and academic pursuits (10%). These results indicate that the majority of visitation motives (90%) are intrinsically driven, reflecting personal fulfilment through enjoyment, spirituality or mental well-being. Extrinsically motivated visits, such as academic research, account for a smaller share (10%). In addition, Table 8 shows the four items under motivations for visiting caves in Anambra State; these motivations fall within the mean decision rule of 2.5 (decision was based on the fact that all the items recorded a minimum mean value of 2.50) and all are acceptable motivations. The SD ranged from 0.48 to 0.79, indicating a homogeneous response from respondents.

The analysis of visitor motivations showed that intrinsic factors (particularly enjoyment, spirituality and relaxation) dominate cave visitation, with extrinsic motivations such as academic pursuits playing a minor role. Intrinsic motivation, as defined by SDT, involves engaging in activities for personal fulfilment rather than external rewards. This finding is consistent with Grobbelaar et al. (2019), who observed a similar pattern among visitors to the Barberton-Makhonjwa Geotrail in South Africa. The high proportion of intrinsically motivated visitors suggests that caves are valued primarily for their capacity to provide meaningful, self-directed experiences. This pattern has practical implications: marketing campaigns should highlight the personal fulfilment, adventure and spiritual renewal associated with cave tourism, while infrastructure development should prioritise enhancing these intrinsic benefits.

Although extrinsic motivations were less common, they remain relevant for niche segments for future development. For instance, academic interest in caves could be fostered by promoting research opportunities, organising educational tours and collaborating with universities and research institutions. Given the lack of scholarly focus on caves in Nigeria, such initiatives could diversify cave tourism markets and contribute to the scholarly visibility of West African geotourism.