Original Research

Psychographic and demographic insights from cave tourism in Anambra State, Nigeria

Chigozie J. Odum, Hermann Kimo Boukamba

Received: 08 June 2025; Accepted: 18 Sept. 2025; Published: 30 Oct. 2025

Copyright: © 2025. The Author(s). Licensee: AOSIS.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Abstract

Background: Cave tourism holds great geotourism potential, especially in developing destinations. However, visitor profiling in West African caves remains limited, hindering sustainable tourism planning.

Aim: This study identifies and analyses the demographic and psychographic profiles and motivations of cave visitors in Anambra State, Nigeria, using Self-Determination Theory (SDT), and statistically tests whether demographic factors significantly influence visitor motivations.

Setting: The research was conducted across three caves in Anambra State (Ogbunike, Owerre-Ezukala and Ufuma), selected for their ecological, cultural and tourism potential.

Method: A quantitative survey (N = 577) classified motivational factors as intrinsic, extrinsic or amotivational, in accordance with SDT. Descriptive statistics established visitor profiles, while t-tests and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to examine motivational differences across demographic variables. Effect sizes were reported to indicate the magnitude of these differences.

Results: Students, businesspeople and civil servants were the most represented groups. Males aged 21–40 years predominated, and 93% of respondents had formal education. Visitors were primarily intrinsically motivated by enjoyment, spirituality and relaxation, while extrinsic motivations were minimal. Gender, age, education and religion significantly influenced motivation levels.

Conclusion: Demographic variables meaningfully shape cave-visiting motivations. Sustainable development of a cave tourist market in emerging destinations requires aligning management and design with these demographic and psychographic realities.

Contribution: This SDT-grounded quantitative study provides a replicable visitor-profiling tool and baseline dataset for West African geotourism, supporting segmentation, policy design and sustainable visitor-management strategies.

Keywords: cave tourism; visitor profiling; psychographic analysis; geotourism development; self-determination theory; sustainable tourism.

Introduction

Eco-tourism attractions such as caves represent a unique nexus of geological marvel, environmental significance and human fascination. Their appeal intensifies when embedded within complex geomorphological systems such as karst formations, which heighten both scientific interest and touristic value (Khalaf 2022). Such natural marvels not only captivate visitors with their unique features but also underscore the critical role of sustainable geotourism in preserving delicate ecosystems.

As a specialised niche of the global tourism industry, cave tourism has demonstrated significant economic impact, particularly for local and regional economies. While a global figure is hard to pinpoint because of the absence of consolidated data, specific examples can illustrate its economic value. For instance, the Mammoth Cave National Park in the United States attracted over 516 000 visitors in the year 2021, contributing more than $69.2 million to the local economy (National Park Service 2022). Similarly, in Europe, Slovenia’s Postojna Cave drew approximately 870 000 tourists in 2019, while the Tham Luang Cave of Thailand (which now stands as a symbol of international collaboration, resilience and triumph of human spirit over adversity) has seen a surge in domestic and international visitor numbers from 5000 in a year to 1.4 million after the 2018 high-profile rescue (Nikkei Asia 2019).

Conversely, within the African context, the Sterkfontein Caves of South Africa are world-renowned for their paleontological significance. Central Africa, particularly Gabon, is home to a relatively unexplored caving system (e.g. Lastoursville Caves and the Abanda Caves), where the discovery of a unique species of amphibians and reptiles has sparked interest not only in the scientific community but also among those interested in biodiversity and eco-tourism (Oslisly & Testa 2016). Anambra State in Nigeria can also serve as an exemplary illustration, teeming with a variety of caves that not only attract thousands of visitors each year but also generate substantial revenues. Caves in Anambra have attracted local, national and international attention (i.e. Ogbunike cave is already in United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO] tentative list). Such booming interest has engendered considerable scholarly discourse, thereby catalysing a robust exploration into the burgeoning prospects of geotourism (Odum 2011; Odum, Onwudufor & Arene 2018).

From a socio-economic and socio-cultural standpoint, Odum (2017) notes that caves should not merely be viewed as geological formations. Rather, they should also be interpreted as vessels of intangible heritage and potential economic catalysts. Such importance is particularly emphasised in the context of developing nations (e.g. Gabon), where governments are increasingly advocating tourism as a viable alternative to traditional oil-dependent economic models (Présidence de la République Gabonaise 2022). In the case of Nigeria, this renewed focus has led to multifaceted initiatives such as the establishment of the Nigeria Tourism Development Corporation (NTDC), as well as research efforts aimed at promoting and understanding geotourism (Emeafor & Odum 2019; Odum 2019). Similarly, from an environmental sustainability point of view, scholars have underscored the importance of negotiating a careful balance. For instance, Rachmawati and Sunkar (2013) caution that while geotourism can stimulate economic growth, poorly managed tourism activities may cause irreversible damage to the cave ecosystems. This ecological vulnerability highlights the need for documenting cave visitors and their profiles, as such data could allow geotourism planners to design strategies that balance visitor access with environmental protection.

A significant gap in the existing academic literature is the scant attention given to the study of cave tourism within the African context at large and the West African context, in particular. This oversight becomes especially evident when viewed alongside the growing body of market segmentation research. In these studies, tourism scholars have consistently emphasised the value of understanding visitor profiles to align tourism offerings with evolving tourist expectations (e.g. Tessema et al. 2022). Filling this gap is both an academic exercise and a strategic step towards geotourism development and planning in the West African context. Accordingly, this study provides the first Self-Determination Theory (SDT)-grounded, large sample (N = 577) profile of West African cave visitors, integrating psychographic and demographic segmentation with inferential tests across three caves in Anambra State. It adapts SDT to a communally oriented African context by explicitly operationalising a spiritual intrinsic dimension and offers a replicable instrument and baseline dataset for cross-site and longitudinal comparison. It lays the groundwork that may enable the creation of customised offerings, marketing strategies and policies tailored to the unique demands of this burgeoning market.

In view of the foregoing, this study is guided by four core objectives: (1) to categorise the demographic of cave visitors, (2) to delineate their psychographic profiles an SDT-aligned framework, (3) to examine their underlying motivations through a quantitative approach and (4) to statistically test whether gender, age, level of education and religion significantly influence visitor motivations. The findings are particularly relevant for developing nations such as Nigeria, where efforts to harness geological heritage are gaining traction as part of broader strategies to diversify the economy through sustainable tourism development.

Literature review

Profiling tourists and visitors

Visitor profiling is foundational in tourism research. It offers vital insights into socio-demographic, psychographic and behavioural characteristics of individuals engaging with destinations. Initially rooted in basic demographic segmentation for marketing purposes during the post-industrial era (Kotler et al. 2017), profiling has since advanced into sophisticated data-driven approaches that integrate behavioural patterns and sustainability concerns (Weaver 2006). In the context of cave tourism, for instance, Chiarini, Duckeck and De Waele (2022) emphasise that effective visitor profiling is crucial for balancing economic benefits with the preservation of delicate cave ecosystems. Nevertheless, this area of study also reveals notable gaps and challenges in capturing the complexities of cave tourism audiences, particularly in emerging markets (e.g. Chiarini et al. 2022).

Demographic profiling

Demographic profiling in tourism research has traditionally focused on variables such as age, gender, level of education and income (Kotler et al. 2017). While research performed by Allan, Dowling and Sanders (2015) highlights that cave tourism predominantly attracts younger demographics because of its adventurous and physically demanding nature, this perspective risks oversimplifying the diversity of cave tourists. In particular, niche segments such as older adventure-seekers, families and individuals with disabilities are often overlooked despite their potential as viable markets. As such, expanding the scope of cave visitor profiling to include these marginalised segments could reveal untapped markets and opportunities for sustainable growth, particularly as inclusive and accessible tourism have been gaining global prominence.

When demographic analysis moves beyond age, gender disparities emerge as a crucial layer that offers additional insight into the complexities of demographic profiling. Studies have indicated broader trends in which male visitors dominate adventure and nature-based tourism (Pomfret 2006). Cultural norms, safety concerns and the perception of caving as a male-oriented activity may often deter female participation. However, gender-sensitive policies and inclusive marketing campaigns have proven effective in challenging traditional gender norms in tourism. In that sense, Pritchard and Morgan (2000) argue that tourism marketing has the potential to redefine traditional gender roles and foster narratives that empower women to engage in adventure tourism. This perspective is supported by several studies that highlight the evolving role of women in adventure travel. Scandinavia provides compelling examples of successful initiatives aimed at rebranding adventure activities to appeal to female audiences. Similarly, in Switzerland, the Adventure Travel Trade Association (ATTA) reported in 2022 that women account for 57% of its adventure travellers, reflecting a growing shift towards female participation in the sector (ATTA 2022). In New Zealand, initiatives such as Women’s Adventures NZ (05 March 2022) have been instrumental in empowering women by offering regular, fun and affordable activities designed to encourage them to try new things and embrace adventure in their lives.

Education levels are widely recognised as a crucial determinant in shaping tourist behaviour, particularly in relation to engagement with interpretive and conservation-oriented tourism. Moscardo (1996) emphasises a robust positive correlation between higher education and interest in cultural and environmental narratives. This suggests that more educated tourists are better equipped to critically engage with destination stories and conservation initiatives. This finding is equally extendable to the context of cave tourism, given that it aligns with broader discussions in the field. In particular, those highlighting that education fosters a greater appreciation for complex cultural and ecological systems, often translating into increased willingness to support conservation efforts and participate in guided interpretive experiences (Powell & Ham 2008). Grobbelaar, Saayman and Slabbert (2019) further substantiate this view in the context of geotrails in South Africa. They observe that individuals with higher educational attainment are more likely to engage in conservation-related activities, thus reflecting a heightened sense of responsibility and intellectual curiosity.

From a critical standpoint, however, emphasis on the educated tourist also raises questions about inclusiveness in cave tourism. Literature frequently overlooks the needs and preferences of less educated audiences, especially those who may approach recreational or cultural experiences from different, yet equally valid, perspectives. For example, Ardoin et al. (2015) argue that while interpretive programmes often prioritise factual and analytical engagement, they risk alienating individuals who prefer experiential or emotive connections with destinations. Accordingly, scholars have cautioned that a narrow focus on education can reinforce elitist narratives that prioritise the preferences of more privileged demographics. To counter this, they stress the need for more interpretive programmes that reflect the diversity of visitor demographics (Falk & Dierking 2013).

Behavioural profiling

Behavioural profiling in tourism research examines visitor patterns such as length of stay, trip frequency, expenditure habits and activity preferences. As such, it provides a foundation for informed tourism strategies. In the context of niche tourism markets such as cave tourism, behavioural profiling has become even more pertinent. It allows researchers and practitioners to identify unique challenges and opportunities associated with visitor engagement. In cases such as Meghalaya, India, Kumar (2014) identified a predominance of short-day trips in the region’s renowned caves (e.g. Mawsami caves and the Krem Liat Prah caves). This trend is particularly shaped by infrastructural challenges, including road connectivity, inadequate signage and insufficient accommodation options for extended stays. This pattern reflects broader dynamics in developing markets, where infrastructural limitations constrain opportunities for prolonged, immersive visitor experiences (Scheyvens 2007).

Behavioural profiling also highlights how the duration of stays directly influences expenditure habits. Research consistently demonstrates that longer stays correlate with higher per-trip expenditures. This is because of tourists’ greater likelihood of participating in additional experiences, supporting local commerce and accessing various services (Kotler et al. 2017; Rogerson 2015). In contrast, short trips typically result in lower spending, restricted to necessities such as transportation and entrance fees, thereby limiting the potential for local economic benefits. Consequently, the dominance of short visits in cases such as Meghalaya can be viewed as missed opportunities to fully harness the potential of cave tourism as a driver of regional development.

Scholars have explored various strategies to address behavioural patterns limiting extended stays through theoretical and empirical perspectives. For instance, Dolnicar, Yanamandram and Cliff (2012) argue that multi-day adventure packages, which combine activities such as cave exploration, trekking and cultural immersion, can incentivise tourists to extend their stays. Others emphasise that well-structured packages align with the principles of experiential tourism, where the value of a visit is enhanced by meaningful and engaging activities. However, implementing such packages often requires significant infrastructure and logistical investment, which may be challenging in developing contexts (Scheyvens 2007) such as Anambra State, where infrastructural barriers persist.

The role of accommodation in shaping tourist behaviour is another area of focus within behavioural profiling. Eco-friendly lodges near cave sites, as proposed by sustainable tourism advocates, could simultaneously offer comfort and promote environmental stewardship (Dolnicar et al. 2012). Behavioural studies such as Kim et al. (2019) support this stance by suggesting that proximity to attractions and sustainable practices are critical determinants of tourist satisfaction and longer stays. However, others caution that over-reliance on high-investment infrastructure projects can inadvertently displace local communities or lead to environmental degradation if poorly managed (Hall 2011).

Seasonality and socio-cultural factors further shape tourism behaviours because of their emphasis on temporal and contextual dimensions of travel. In regions with distinct climatic patterns, visitor numbers often peak during favourable seasons, thereby underscoring the importance of adaptive marketing strategies (Butler 1998). Butler’s Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) framework highlights how seasonality impacts the development and sustainability of destinations. Festivals and cultural events also act as significant drivers, transforming occasional visitors into repeat tourists by offering unique, time-bound experiences (Gibson & Connell 2012). For instance, the annual Ofala Festival in Anambra State attracts both domestic and diaspora tourists. This influx presents a valuable opportunity to align cultural programming with wider tourism planning efforts. Also, caves with stable microclimates can effectively be promoted as year-round destinations, particularly during off-peak seasons. Research on Kartchner Caverns in Arizona highlights how consistent internal conditions enhance their appeal regardless of external weather variations (Buecher 1999). Similarly, a study on Gelatik Cave in Indonesia underscores the role of microclimates in supporting year-round tourism, while emphasising the necessity of careful monitoring and visitor management to ensure environmental preservation (Danardono et al. 2018).

Nevertheless, critical perspectives caution against an over-reliance on behavioural metrics, which may oversimplify the complexities of tourist motivations. Static indicators, such as visit duration or spending patterns, often fail to account for the dynamic and context-dependent nature of tourist decision-making (Smallman & Moore 2010). Integrating psychographic and behavioural insights, supported by validated psychometric instruments, provides a more holistic understanding of tourists’ values, emotional drivers and aspirations, and therefore offers a more comprehensive view of visitor behaviour (Pearce 2005).

Psychographic profiling

Psychographic profiling examines the values, motivations and lifestyles that shape tourist behaviour. Unlike demographic or behavioural profiling, this approach uncovers the psychological factors that influence travel choices and preferences. Scholars have long sought to categorise tourists based on their motivations and preferences. Pomfret (2006) identifies adventure enthusiasts as individuals who prioritise physical challenges and novel experiences, and tend to gravitate towards activities such as spelunking, rock climbing and trekking. Eco-conscious travellers, as noted by Becken (2014), place a strong emphasis on sustainability. They often participate in conservation efforts and choose destinations that prioritise environmental stewardship. However, Dolnicar (2004) observes these categorisations as overly simplistic, arguing that tourist motivations are fluid and often intersect. For example, an adventure enthusiast may simultaneously value cultural enrichment, while a cultural explorer may be drawn to eco-tourism initiatives. Pearce and Lee (2005) expand on this notion by highlighting how factors such as life stages, prior experiences and societal influences shape tourist motivations over time. This underscores the need for adaptive psychographic models that account for the dynamic interplay of motivations.

Psychographic profiling also reveals critical barriers that influence tourist behaviour. Gender dynamics, for instance, as discussed earlier, intersect with motivational factors, as cultural norms and safety concerns often deter female participation in adventure tourism (Pritchard & Morgan 2000). Socio-economic constraints further highlight the importance of affordability and inclusivity in tourism offerings (Cohen, Prayag & Moital 2014). These barriers emphasise the need for tailored tourism products that resonate with diverse value systems. For instance, spiritual tourists are typically drawn to peaceful and introspective environments. In response, many destinations have introduced wellness-focused offerings such as meditation retreats and spiritual workshops (Norman 2011). In addition, eco-conscious travellers, as Wearing (2001) notes, frequently seek accommodation and activities aligned with their sustainability ethos, such as eco-certified lodges or voluntourism opportunities. Such insights reinforce the importance of psychographic profiling in designing tourism products that address both motivations and barriers.

Interdisciplinary approaches to profiling have enriched tourism studies by integrating insights from sociology, psychology and anthropology. Symbolic interactionism, as proposed by Blumer (1969), examines how tourists construct meaning through social interactions and personal narratives. In cave tourism, this perspective helps explain how visitors interpret cultural or spiritual elements, shaping their overall satisfaction and engagement (Moscardo 2010). Behavioural economics further contributes by examining how cognitive biases and heuristics influence decision-making (Thaler & Sunstein 2008). For instance, perceptions of risk in cave tourism, such as concerns about safety, are often exaggerated compared to the real level of danger. As Chylińska (2024) notes, this makes risk communication a vital part of visitor management. These interdisciplinary insights not only deepen the understanding of tourist behaviour but also provide actionable strategies for addressing barriers and enhancing experiences.

Despite its contributions, psychographic profiling is not without limitations. Its reliance on subjective constructs such as values and attitudes raises concerns about generalisability and cultural bias. Kim and Prideaux (2005) argue that traditional psychographic models often reflect Western-centric paradigms, potentially overlooking diverse worldviews and motivations in non-Western contexts. This critique is echoed by Asiedu (2005), who emphasises that communal values and collective identity significantly shape travel motivations in African contexts, contrasting with the individualistic focus of many Western models. Addressing these gaps requires culturally sensitive research methodologies that capture the unique psychographic dimensions of underrepresented populations. For instance, in African tourism, psychographic profiling could incorporate communal aspirations, spiritual connections and deep appreciation for natural and cultural heritage (Rogerson 2015). These culturally tailored approaches not only enhance the inclusivity of psychographic models but also provide a more accurate representation of global tourist behaviour.

Tourist motivation and self-determination theory

Crafting meaningful and sustainable tourist experiences begins with a deep understanding of tourist motivation, which not only fosters repeat visitation but also supports long-term sustainability. Self-Determination Theory, pioneered by Deci and Ryan (1985), serves as a comprehensive framework for unpacking the varied motivations that influence tourist behaviour. By categorising motivation into intrinsic, extrinsic and amotivation, SDT sheds light on the underlying reasons individuals engage with tourism activities, including specialised niches such as cave tourism. When paired with complementary theories and empirical research, SDT helps to elucidate the dynamic layers of tourist motivation. This depth of understanding can guide more effective destination marketing, management strategies and policy decisions (Gilal et al. 2019).

Intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation refers to behaviours driven by inherent enjoyment or satisfaction, such as exploration, personal growth and aesthetic appreciation (Deci & Ryan 2000). This form of motivation often transcends material or external rewards. It reflects deeply in personal desires for fulfilment and engagement. In the context of cave tourism, intrinsic motivations frequently emerge through transformative experiences, where visitors report profound senses of wonder and connection to nature (Grobbelaar et al. 2019). Such experiences align with Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs, where self-actualisation (i.e. the aspiration to achieve one’s full potential) represents the pinnacle of human fulfilment. Scholars have extensively explored the role of intrinsic motivation in shaping meaningful tourism experiences. For instance, Pearce and Lee (2005) again emphasise that personal growth, self-exploration and emotional resonance are core motivations for leisure travel, particularly in niche tourism segments. Visitors exploring cave systems, such as those in Meghalaya, India, often describe their journeys as opportunities for introspection and personal discovery, illustrating how intrinsic motivations are tied to deeply emotional and intellectual rewards. Moreover, studies carried out by Stebbins (1992) on serious leisure suggest that activities requiring effort and skill, such as spelunking, amplify intrinsic satisfaction, thereby linking the experience to a broader sense of accomplishment and fulfilment.

Guided cave tours further enhance intrinsic motivation by fostering an appreciation of ecological and geological formations in a way that creates long-lasting connections to nature. Falk and Dierking (2013) argue that immersive and interpretive experiences, such as those in caves, stimulate both cognitive and affective engagement while reinforcing intrinsic connections to the environment. Longitudinal studies reveal that intrinsic motivations often evolve over time, whereas initial motivations may centre on novelty, such as seeking adventure or escape. The latter frequently transitions into attachments based on familiarity and a more profound appreciation of the destination (Kim, Ritchie & McCormick 2012). For instance, a first-time visitor may be drawn to the mystery and allure of a cave, while subsequent visits could foster a bond rooted in ecological stewardship or a deeper historical interest. This underscores the dynamic and enduring nature of intrinsic motivations in tourism.

Extrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation refers to behaviours driven by external factors such as financial rewards, social recognition or institutional goals, where the desired outcomes are distinct from the activity itself (Deci & Ryan 2000). In the context of cave tourism, extrinsic motivations manifest in activities such as corporate retreats aimed at fostering team cohesion, educational programmes designed to achieve learning objectives or research expeditions with explicit scientific goals (Allan et al. 2015). Such activities often emphasise measurable outcomes, including employee performance improvement, academic knowledge dissemination or data collection. While extrinsic motivators can broaden the accessibility of cave tourism and incentivise participation, scholars such as Moscardo (2010) caution against an over-reliance on external rewards. Excessive structuring or prioritisation of outcomes can diminish participants’ subjective experience, erode authenticity and reduce their emotional engagement with the environment. Ryan and Deci (2000) further imply that environments overly focused on extrinsic rewards may undermine intrinsic motivation by reducing perceived autonomy and personal connection.

To address these challenges, academic discourse emphasises the importance of integrating extrinsic and intrinsic motivational elements in tourism programme design. Ballantyne and Packer (2011) advocate for incorporating self-directed activities within structured experiences, fostering a balance between organisational objectives and individual autonomy. For instance, a corporate retreat in a cave setting could include optional exploratory sessions, creative workshops or ecological awareness programmes that cater to individual preferences. Such hybrid approaches are supported by Falk and Dierking (2013), whose research underscores the importance of fostering emotionally resonant and intellectually stimulating experiences to maximise engagement and satisfaction. Furthermore, Moscardo and Murphy (2014) highlight the potential for interpretive and participatory elements to deepen participants’ understanding of the cave’s ecological and cultural significance. By designing programmes that appeal to both extrinsic and intrinsic motivations, tourism providers can enhance the overall quality of the experience while encouraging sustainable engagement with natural heritage sites.

Amotivation

Amotivation, characterised by a lack of intention or drive to participate, poses significant challenges in tourism, particularly in niche markets such as cave tourism. Visitors may face barriers such as perceived risks, accessibility limitations or a lack of awareness, which deter engagement (Cole et al. 2019). These obstacles often stem from structural inadequacies, insufficient information or misconceptions about destinations. Addressing these barriers requires a multifaceted approach, including infrastructure development, targeted marketing and effective risk communication. Technologies such as virtual tours and augmented reality have proven particularly effective in mitigating perceived risks and generating interest, as they provide immersive previews of destinations while reducing uncertainties (Tussyadiah, Wang & Jia 2018). Case in point, virtual experiences can make inaccessible or remote cave systems more appealing to hesitant visitors by showcasing their unique features and safety measures.

Cultural and contextual factors profoundly influence both the manifestation of amotivation and the strategies required to overcome it. In African contexts, caves are often imbued with spiritual, historical or communal significance, and motivational dynamics are deeply intertwined with cultural traditions and identities (Odum 2017). This contrasts with the more individualistic frameworks commonly applied in Western-centric motivational models such as SDT (Salazar 2011). Recognising and integrating these cultural dimensions into motivation frameworks enhances their relevance and effectiveness. For example, community-driven tourism initiatives that highlight local heritage and emphasise collective benefits can help overcome amotivation by fostering inclusivity and connection. In such contexts, addressing amotivation requires understanding and respecting the cultural narratives that shape visitor attitudes towards tourism activities. Integrating SDT with complementary theories enriches its explanatory power. Push-pull theory, proposed by Dann (1977), identifies internal drivers (push factors) and external attractions (pull factors) that shape tourist motivations. In cave tourism, push factors might include a desire for adventure, novelty or escapism, while pull factors encompass unique geological formations, historical narratives and spiritual significance (Kim et al. 2008). Similarly, Pearce’s (2005) Travel Career Ladder illustrates how motivations evolve with travel experience, offering insights into the progressive nature of tourist engagement.

In summary, given the limited or non-existent literature concerning cave visitors and their motivations in West African nations, this study seeks to fill the gap and enhance the knowledge base for academia, tourism planners, policymakers, tourism marketers and promoters, particularly in making plans for Tourism Product Development. This perspective aligns with the view of Jang and Wu (2006), who emphasised that understanding tourists and their motivations is essential for deciphering their attitudes, analysing trends, making future plans and maintaining credible marketing programmes to effectively appeal to both visitors and tourists. Furthermore, this study adopts the perspective that the individuals sampled are considered visitors rather than tourists, as the variable of an overnight stay (commonly used to define tourists) is absent. The motivations of these visitors were assessed using the three categories outlined in SDT, providing a comprehensive framework to analyse intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and amotivation. By adopting this approach, the study offers valuable insights into visitor behaviour and lays the groundwork for more effective tourism planning and marketing strategies in West Africa.

Study area

Anambra State is situated in southeastern Nigeria, within West Africa, and spans an area of approximately 4844 km² (1870 mi²). It lies between longitudes 6°35’E and 7°30’E and latitudes 5°40’N and 6°48’N. It consists of 21 local government areas whose tourism potential is managed by the Ministry of Culture, Entertainment and Tourism, located in the state capital, Awka (Anambra State Government n.d.). Despite continuous efforts over the years, tourism in Anambra State remains underdeveloped (see Odum 2020).

Studies using the TALC framework have identified the state as being in a transitional phase between exploration and development, a pattern observed in other southeastern Nigerian states (Odum 2020; Odum et al. 2018). Anambra State offers a diverse portfolio of attractions, including cultural events such as masquerade festivals, traditional dances, the Ofala Festival and the Iri-ji (New Yam) Festival. It also boasts historic and man-made sites, including Zik’s Mausoleum, the Igbo-Ukwu archaeological sites and the Biafra War Bunker, as well as natural attractions such as forest reserves, sacred lakes, streams and caves. A key component of Anambra’s natural attractions is its caves (locally referred to as Ogba), which vary in size, formation and features, and are distributed across communities such as Ogbunike (Ogbunike cave), Owerre-Ezukala (Ogba-Ukwu cave) and Ufuma (Ufuma cave) (see Figure 1). These caves hold socio-economic and socio-cultural importance, with their functions and values shaped by community-specific practices (Odum 2017). The Ogbunike cave is particularly notable as it is listed on UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List for its unique cultural and natural significance. Despite this recognition, none of the caves in Anambra State has been fully developed for tourism purposes. Currently, management and fee collection are handled by local communities with minimal involvement from the state government, although recent indications suggest an emerging interest in their development.

FIGURE 1: Map of Anambra State showing the sampled caves.

This emerging interest highlights the potential for the caves to play a transformative role in Anambra’s tourism landscape. However, for such potential to be realised, efforts must go beyond infrastructure development and include strategic planning grounded in sustainability principles. Effective geotourism planning for cave tourism, in particular, requires not only physical investments but also a collaborative approach involving comprehensive stakeholder engagement. A deeper understanding of visitor profiles and preferences is equally crucial, as these elements are vital for tailoring tourism experiences that balance economic benefits with cultural preservation and environmental protection. At present, critical data gaps in these areas present a formidable challenge to advancing sustainable tourism initiatives, underscoring the need for targeted research and policy interventions.

Research methods and design

Research design

This study employed a quantitative survey design as the primary method of investigation. This design was selected because the central aim of the research was to statistically test hypotheses regarding the influence of demographic variables on cave-visiting motivations. A survey method allowed for the collection of a large sample (N = 577), which provided both descriptive insights into visitor characteristics and the statistical power necessary for robust inferential testing. The survey instrument was explicitly structured to operationalise SDT by classifying motivations into intrinsic, extrinsic and amotivation categories. This quantitative-led design ensured that findings could be generalised to a wider visitor population within the study area and compared against existing tourism segmentation research.

Sampling strategy

The research was conducted in Anambra State, southeastern Nigeria, where three focal sites (Ogbunike, Owerre-Ezukala and Ufuma caves) were selected purposively because of their significance in terms of tourism potential, ecological value and cultural meaning. The absence of a formal visitor registry or official numerical data for the selected caves made it necessary to employ a convenience sampling method. This approach enabled the inclusion of visitors who were available and willing to participate during the study period, aligning with similar methodologies in related research (Chingombe & Taru 2018). Accordingly, non-probability sampling (despite its limitations in terms of generalisability) was regarded as suitable for exploratory research in naturalistic tourism settings where visitors are transient and unregistered.

The fieldwork was conducted from April 2023 to December 2023 across the three caves. During this period, a total of 700 questionnaires were distributed, of which 577 were completed and returned (see Table 1). This high response rate (82.4%) strengthens the reliability of the findings and demonstrates the willingness of cave visitors to participate in research activities.

Instrument and data collection

The principal instrument for data collection was a structured questionnaire designed to capture both demographic variables and motivational drivers. It was divided into two sections. The first section recorded demographic characteristics including origin, gender, age, level of education and religion, which were later used in hypothesis testing. The second section focused on motivations for cave visitation, operationalised within the framework of SDT. Respondents rated a series of motivational items corresponding to intrinsic, extrinsic and amotivation categories using a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ (1) to ‘strongly agree’ (5). The structured design facilitated standardisation across respondents, thereby ensuring comparability of results and the suitability of data for inferential statistical testing.

Data analysis

Data collected through questionnaires were coded and processed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software. Descriptive statistics, including frequencies and percentages, were computed to provide an overview of the demographic profile and motivational orientations of the respondents. Inferential statistical techniques were then applied to test the study’s hypotheses (H). Independent-samples t-tests were used to assess differences in motivations between male and female respondents (H1). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed to test for differences across age groups, levels of education and religious affiliations (H2–H4). A significance level of 0.05 was adopted throughout to ensure that the findings were interpreted within a widely accepted threshold of reliability and validity. In addition, effect sizes were calculated (Cohen’s d for t-tests and partial η² for ANOVAs) to provide a measure of the magnitude of differences. This ensured that findings could be interpreted not only in terms of statistical significance but also practical relevance (Pallant 2020).

To operationalise the analysis, the study tested the following hypotheses:

H1: There is no significant difference in the motivations for cave visitation between male and female visitors.

H2: There is no significant difference in the motivations for cave visitation across different age groups.

H3: There is no significant difference in the motivations for cave visitation across educational categories.

H4: There is no significant difference in the motivations for cave visitation across religious affiliations.

Ethical considerations

Ethical approval to conduct this study was obtained from the University of Nigeria, Faculty of Arts Research Ethics Committee (Ref: UN/FA/FAREC/02022025). All participants were fully informed about the purpose and scope of the study prior to their involvement. Given the informal setting and voluntary nature of the study context, verbal consent was obtained before the survey completion. To ensure confidentiality and anonymity, no personally identifiable or sensitive data were collected, aligning with American Psychological Association (APA) Ethical Guidelines.

Results

Occupational profile of respondents

Table 2 presents the occupational profile and numerical distribution of respondents engaged in geotourism in Anambra State. Students constitute the largest group (37%), followed by businesspeople (28%) and civil servants (19%). The least represented were academia and unemployed youth (8% each). These figures suggest that caves serve as leisure spaces for students, while also attracting business and government workers seeking relaxation or social gatherings.

The strong presence of businesspeople reflects Anambra State’s commercial orientation, supported by its three major cities, Awka, Nnewi and Onitsha, which function as hubs of economic activity (Odum 2017; Odum et al. 2018). Onitsha, in particular, is home to the Main Market, widely regarded as the largest market in West Africa and a key gateway to the southeastern and South-South regions of Nigeria (Odum 2011; Soludo 2006). This economic vitality likely attracts business-oriented visitors who may combine tourism with commercial activities.

Civil servants represent the third-largest group, accounting for 19% of cave visitors. This is significant, considering that civil servants comprise a substantial portion of the state’s workforce; Soludo (2006) estimates that 51% of Anambra’s workforce is employed in civil service. The participation of this demographic in geotourism highlights the recreational value of caves for individuals engaged in public sector employment.

The least represented groups, each constituting 8% of cave visitors, are academia and unemployed youth. The minimal presence of academia may be attributed to the nascent state of geotourism, specifically cave tourism, in Anambra State and Nigeria as a whole. As Odum (2020) notes, tourism in the southeastern region of Nigeria remains underdeveloped and is largely in the exploratory phase. Similarly, the limited participation of unemployed youth may reflect broader socio-economic constraints that inhibit access to recreational opportunities.

Demographic profile of respondents

Table 3 summarises the demographic characteristics of the 577 surveyed respondents, including their origin, gender, age, level of education and religion. It reveals that most respondents resided within Anambra State (79%), while 21% came from outside the state. This indicates that cave tourism in Anambra is primarily driven by domestic visitors. The relatively low proportion of external visitors may be attributed to the undeveloped state of these caves, which lack facilities attractive to non-residents.

Gender distribution (Table 3) shows that males accounted for 78% (n = 450) of the sample and females 22% (n = 127). This substantial gender imbalance suggests that cave tourism in the state currently appeals more to men than women. Possible explanations for lower female participation (such as cultural norms, safety concerns, or accessibility constraints) are considered in the discussion section.

The age distribution was dominated by individuals aged 21–30 years (40%), followed by the 31–40 years group (28%), as shown in Table 3. Collectively, the 21–40 years bracket accounted for two-thirds of all visitors, suggesting that cave tourism appeals predominantly to younger adults.

Educational attainment (Table 3) indicated that 93% of respondents possessed some form of qualification, ranging from the First School Leaving Certificate (FSLC) to postgraduate degrees. First School Leaving Certificate holders represented the largest subgroup (31%), followed by Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (SSCE) holders (24%). Only 7% of respondents reported no formal qualification. This distribution suggests that cave tourism in Anambra State attracts a literate audience, therefore enabling conservation and interpretive messages to be communicated effectively.

The three predominant religions in Nigeria, namely Christianity, Islam and African traditional religion (ATR), are represented among cave visitors (Table 3). Christians form the majority at 64%, followed by adherents of ATR (18%) and Muslims (15%). A small number of respondents (3%) indicated ‘no religion’. This distribution reflects the religious plurality of Anambra State and its influence on cave visitation patterns.

Hypotheses testing and inferential analysis

Gender differences (H1)

H1: There is no significant difference in the mean responses of male and female respondents regarding their motivations for visiting caves in Anambra State.

As shown in Table 4, the independent-samples t-test confirmed that males (mean [M] = 3.25, standard deviation [SD] = 0.32) reported higher mean motivation scores than females (M = 3.09, SD = 0.34). The difference was statistically significant, t(575) = 4.74, p < 0.001, leading to the rejection of the null hypothesis. These results indicate that gender significantly shapes cave-visiting motivations, with a moderate effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.49).

Age differences (H2)

H2: There is no significant difference in the mean response of cave tourists on the motivations for visiting caves in Anambra State based on age.

A one-way ANOVA was conducted by comparing the motivation scores of respondents across age groups (Table 5). Results confirmed a statistically significant effect of age, F(3, 573) = 4.90, p < 0.002, partial η² = 0.025. The null hypothesis was rejected. Moreover, the effect size further highlights the importance of age in shaping cave-visiting motivations, with younger adults particularly drawn to the recreational and adventurous dimensions of cave tourism.

Level of education (H3)

H3: There is no significant difference in the mean responses of cave tourists on the motivations for visiting caves in Anambra State based on level of education.

A one-way ANOVA was conducted by comparing the motivation scores of respondents across six educational groups (Table 6). Results revealed a statistically significant effect of educational qualification, F(5, 571) = 5.02, p < 0.001, partial η² = 0.042, leading to the rejection of the null hypothesis. The effect size suggests that educational attainment plays a significant role in shaping cave-visiting motivations, indicating that higher levels of education may be linked to stronger interest in the cultural, recreational and environmental value of caves.

Religion (H4)

H4: There is no significant difference in the mean responses of cave tourists on the motivations for visiting caves in Anambra State based on religion.

A one-way ANOVA confirmed significant differences in motivations across religious groups (Table 7). Results indicated a statistically significant effect of religion, F(3, 573) = 2.193, p = 0.038, partial η² = 0.015, leading to the rejection of the null hypothesis. Although the effect size was small, the results nonetheless demonstrate that religious affiliation has a modest but meaningful influence on cave visitation, with variations in motivations reflecting spiritual and cultural orientations.

Motivation for visiting caves

As shown in Table 8, the primary reasons for visiting caves in Anambra State are fun (38%), religious or spiritual purposes (28%), relaxation and meditation (24%), and academic pursuits (10%). These results indicate that the majority of visitation motives (90%) are intrinsically driven, reflecting personal fulfilment through enjoyment, spirituality or mental well-being. Extrinsically motivated visits, such as academic research, account for a smaller share (10%). In addition, Table 8 shows the four items under motivations for visiting caves in Anambra State; these motivations fall within the mean decision rule of 2.5 (decision was based on the fact that all the items recorded a minimum mean value of 2.50) and all are acceptable motivations. The SD ranged from 0.48 to 0.79, indicating a homogeneous response from respondents.

Discussion

The analysis revealed that cave tourism in Anambra State is predominantly characterised by a visitor demographic that is single, male-dominated and falls within the 21–40 years age range. Importantly, the inferential tests confirmed that these demographic patterns are not only descriptive but statistically significant in shaping visitor motivations. Beyond description, these patterns carry theoretical implications: by evidencing a culturally embedded spiritual pathway within intrinsic motivation, the study extends SDT in an African geotourism setting and clarifies how autonomy and relatedness are expressed under communal orientations, with small-to-moderate demographic effects observed across gender, age, level of education and religion.

The dominance of male visitors aligns with previous studies carried out in Australia, Korea and South Africa (Allan 2011; Chingombe & Taru 2018; Kim et al. 2008). The reasons for male predominance in cave visitation may be attributed to the physically challenging nature of cave landscapes, which can deter female visitors because of concerns about safety, solitude and remoteness. These challenges are exacerbated by Nigeria’s current insecurity, which affects all visitors but appears to disproportionately discourage female participation.

The predominance of visitors aged 21–40 years highlights a generational dynamic: younger adults are particularly drawn to the adventurous and recreational qualities of caves. This result mirrors findings from Iran and South Africa (Allan & Shavanddasht 2019; Chingombe & Taru 2018), where caves appeal strongly to youth and early career groups. In the Anambra case, this age group’s interest reflects both physical capability and enthusiasm for exploration. To capitalise on this trend, tourism developers should consider incorporating physically demanding activities such as rock climbing, zip-lining or biking around caves to enhance their appeal to energetic visitors. Complementary facilities, including rest areas, guided adventure tours and recreational zones, would further encourage longer stays and sustained interest in cave destinations.

Educational attainment emerged as another significant variable, with 93% of respondents reporting some form of formal education. This high literacy rate provides opportunities for conservation messaging and interpretive programming, as educated visitors are generally more receptive to ecological and cultural narratives (Moscardo 1996; Powell & Ham 2008). The finding that higher levels of education correlate with stronger motivational orientations reinforces the need for targeted strategies. For instance, explicit conservation signage and educational materials could help foster responsible visitor behaviour and mitigate observed challenges such as graffiti and littering in Anambra caves (Odum 2019). At the same time, programming should remain inclusive of less educated segments to avoid elitism in tourism design.

Religion was also a statistically significant factor, albeit with a smaller effect size. The data indicate that spiritual and religious motives account for nearly one-third of visitation, thereby underscoring the sacred value attached to caves in Anambra State. This resonates with broader research noting the role of spirituality in shaping visitor experiences in African contexts (Norman 2011; Odum 2019). Such findings suggest that geotourism development should not only focus on recreation but also incorporate cultural and religious sensitivities. Carefully designed interpretation can enhance the spiritual significance of caves while maintaining inclusivity for diverse faith groups.

Most cave visitors in Anambra State reside within the state (79%), as summarised in Table 3. This highlights the localised nature of cave tourism in Anambra State and reflects limited regional and international penetration. This predominance of domestic visitors resonates with findings in other regions, such as Australia and the Middle East, where domestic tourism is a dominant market segment (Allan 2011). The limited number of external visitors may, however, reflect a combination of factors, including the lack of effective geotourism marketing, the presence of more attractive alternatives in neighbouring states or the exacerbating effect of poor road networks, which encourages travellers to opt for destinations within closer reach (Rachmawati & Sunkar 2013). This suggests that domestic tourism is a vital component of geotourism in developing countries, where limited resources often constrain international tourism development.

Reasons (motivations)

The analysis of visitor motivations showed that intrinsic factors (particularly enjoyment, spirituality and relaxation) dominate cave visitation, with extrinsic motivations such as academic pursuits playing a minor role. Intrinsic motivation, as defined by SDT, involves engaging in activities for personal fulfilment rather than external rewards. This finding is consistent with Grobbelaar et al. (2019), who observed a similar pattern among visitors to the Barberton-Makhonjwa Geotrail in South Africa. The high proportion of intrinsically motivated visitors suggests that caves are valued primarily for their capacity to provide meaningful, self-directed experiences. This pattern has practical implications: marketing campaigns should highlight the personal fulfilment, adventure and spiritual renewal associated with cave tourism, while infrastructure development should prioritise enhancing these intrinsic benefits.

Although extrinsic motivations were less common, they remain relevant for niche segments for future development. For instance, academic interest in caves could be fostered by promoting research opportunities, organising educational tours and collaborating with universities and research institutions. Given the lack of scholarly focus on caves in Nigeria, such initiatives could diversify cave tourism markets and contribute to the scholarly visibility of West African geotourism.

Conclusion and implications

This study underscored the importance of demographic and psychographic segmentation in geotourism, as evidenced by the diverse categories of cave visitors identified in Anambra State. The findings highlighted the necessity of tailoring geotourism development strategies to meet the unique needs of these distinct visitor groups. Effective segmentation remains a cornerstone of tourism planning, as it enables destinations to design targeted marketing mixes that attract and retain visitors (Becker 2014). Segment-based approaches provide destinations with a competitive edge by enabling a better understanding of visitors’ needs and preferences, thus allowing the alignment of tourism supply with demand (Allan & Shavanddasht 2019).

The results demonstrated that SDT is a suitable theoretical framework for understanding visitor motivations in emerging economies such as Nigeria. Intrinsic motivations (enjoyment, spirituality, and relaxation) were found to dominate, while extrinsic motivations such as academic pursuits were less common. These insights were not only descriptive but were statistically validated through t-tests and ANOVAs, which confirmed significant variations in motivations across gender, age, education and religion. The consistent presence of small-to-moderate effect sizes strengthens the evidence that demographic factors play a meaningful role in shaping visitor behaviour, even in contexts where statistical differences are modest.

The implications of these findings are multifaceted. From a policy standpoint, the study provides data that can inform visitor management, product design and destination planning. For instance, younger adults were shown to be especially drawn to the adventurous dimensions of cave tourism, suggesting opportunities for integrating physically demanding activities such as rock climbing or zip-lining. The strong presence of educated visitors opens opportunities for conservation education and interpretive programming. Religious influences, while modest in statistical effect, underline the cultural and spiritual dimensions of cave tourism and highlight the need for sensitivity to sacred values when designing tourism offerings.

For investors and practitioners, the quantitative evidence presented here provides a baseline dataset that can be used in feasibility studies and development planning. Marketing strategies should emphasise intrinsic motivations to encourage repeat visitation and sustainability. Promotional campaigns highlighting enjoyment, adventure and spiritual renewal may prove particularly effective in appealing to the dominant visitor segments. At the same time, attention should be given to expanding underrepresented segments, such as academic researchers and female visitors, through targeted initiatives that address their specific needs and barriers.

It is important to note, however, that the study focused on purposively selected caves in Anambra State, and cave systems differ in both their physical features and visitor dynamics. Future research should extend to other regions in Nigeria and West Africa, allowing for comparative analyses that can establish broader generalisability. Cross-regional studies could examine differences between Anglophone and Francophone countries, gendered patterns of visitation, and the socio-economic impacts of cave tourism on local communities. Such work would deepen understanding of the role of caves in sustainable tourism development at local, national and international levels.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the local guides and community members at Ogbunike, Owerre-Ezukala and Ufuma caves who facilitated access and assisted in organising the focus group discussions. Their cooperation and logistical support were invaluable to the fieldwork. Special appreciation goes to the student volunteers from the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, who contributed to the data collection process and helped engage visitors with the questionnaire survey. They also acknowledge the insights shared by participants during the focus group sessions, which enriched the study’s qualitative depth. All individuals acknowledged here have consented to be named.

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

C.J.O. and H.K.B. jointly conceptualised and designed the study. C.J.O. led the fieldwork and data collection process. Both authors collaborated on data analysis and interpretation. The introduction, literature review, methodology and discussion sections were co-written and critically reviewed by both authors. H.K.B. contributed substantially to the theoretical framing and contextualisation of results. Both authors approved the final article and take full responsibility for its content and integrity.

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, C.J.O., upon reasonable request. Because of ethical considerations and the informal nature of participant consent, the data are not publicly available.

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. The article does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.

References